Protest by Maori in the 1970s - Causes
Maori Urbanisation
Maori urbanisation after the Second World War significantly affected race relations as a new generation of Maori were emerging. The population of Maori prior to World War II was rapidly increasing as Maori health improved as disease lessened due to improvements in hygiene, housing and water supplies. The increased population created pressure on the resources of the countryside, presenting Maori with good reason to migrate to urban areas. Returning Maori soldiers from the war also contributed to the ‘urban flow’ of Maori to the cities, especially as after the thrill and energy from the war a country lifestyle was no longer appealing to many. Furthermore, the cities provided work and money, also some men already had whanau move to the cities during the early 1940s. By 1945, over 26,000 Maori were living in cities and by the late 1990s around 473,000 Maori, which was 90% of the Maori population, had adopted the urban lifestyle. The large numbers of Maori in urban areas raised problems amongst some Pakeha as old prejudices persisted and new ones surfaced. Many Maori also came across financial problems and troubles with alcohol, which often created conflict with Pakeha landlords. Despite the racial complications associated with Maori urbanisation, inter-marriage between Maori and Pakeha increased. However, the unity of a marriage also created further issues as children of these marriages were often raised in a Pakeha influenced household which differed from the traditional Maori upbringing. These children were often subject to discrimination in schools as teachers treated them differently due to the colour of their skin. Subsequently, children were left confused and with no clear identity, causing self-esteem issues and social problems. Urban Maori also lost the traditional tribal influences from kaumatua (elders) which restricted their strong whanau and tribal support. Historian Graeme Ball in his book, Making Kiwis: Greatest Hits of 20th Century New Zealand History, entails that, “Urbanisation thus achieved de-tribalisation of Maori much more effectively than any intentional government policy of the previous decades.”Furthermore, in Turning Points: Events That Changed The Course Of New Zealand History, Paul Moon states, “There was growing acknowledgement that elements of traditional Maori culture were draining away. By the 1970s, however, a generation of mainly young, educated, urban Maori began to wrestle with this threat. In various ways in the subsequent two decades, they sought to preserve those traces of their culture that had survived the forces of assimilation, and to breathe life back into those that had been subsumed by the strident advances of European New Zealand.” A survey also showed that by 1967 nearly 90% of Maori households had adapted to a Pakeha lifestyle. Maori activist groups started to emerge from the increased urbanisation, for example, Nga Tamatoa, meaning Young Warriors. Nga Tamatoa became the new voice of Maori and a strong-minded group on Maori affairs, pushing for the revitalisation of Maori culture. Maori urbanisation was a significant cause of the protest by Maori in the 1970s as it provided new and educated Maori leaders in society and more opportunities, however, is a key factor in the loss of traditional tribal influence on Maori and the subsequent change of lifestyle.
Image 15 (Right): Members of Maori activist group, Nga Tamatoa, on the steps of Parliament, representing urban Maori.
Maori Urbanisation
Maori urbanisation after the Second World War significantly affected race relations as a new generation of Maori were emerging. The population of Maori prior to World War II was rapidly increasing as Maori health improved as disease lessened due to improvements in hygiene, housing and water supplies. The increased population created pressure on the resources of the countryside, presenting Maori with good reason to migrate to urban areas. Returning Maori soldiers from the war also contributed to the ‘urban flow’ of Maori to the cities, especially as after the thrill and energy from the war a country lifestyle was no longer appealing to many. Furthermore, the cities provided work and money, also some men already had whanau move to the cities during the early 1940s. By 1945, over 26,000 Maori were living in cities and by the late 1990s around 473,000 Maori, which was 90% of the Maori population, had adopted the urban lifestyle. The large numbers of Maori in urban areas raised problems amongst some Pakeha as old prejudices persisted and new ones surfaced. Many Maori also came across financial problems and troubles with alcohol, which often created conflict with Pakeha landlords. Despite the racial complications associated with Maori urbanisation, inter-marriage between Maori and Pakeha increased. However, the unity of a marriage also created further issues as children of these marriages were often raised in a Pakeha influenced household which differed from the traditional Maori upbringing. These children were often subject to discrimination in schools as teachers treated them differently due to the colour of their skin. Subsequently, children were left confused and with no clear identity, causing self-esteem issues and social problems. Urban Maori also lost the traditional tribal influences from kaumatua (elders) which restricted their strong whanau and tribal support. Historian Graeme Ball in his book, Making Kiwis: Greatest Hits of 20th Century New Zealand History, entails that, “Urbanisation thus achieved de-tribalisation of Maori much more effectively than any intentional government policy of the previous decades.”Furthermore, in Turning Points: Events That Changed The Course Of New Zealand History, Paul Moon states, “There was growing acknowledgement that elements of traditional Maori culture were draining away. By the 1970s, however, a generation of mainly young, educated, urban Maori began to wrestle with this threat. In various ways in the subsequent two decades, they sought to preserve those traces of their culture that had survived the forces of assimilation, and to breathe life back into those that had been subsumed by the strident advances of European New Zealand.” A survey also showed that by 1967 nearly 90% of Maori households had adapted to a Pakeha lifestyle. Maori activist groups started to emerge from the increased urbanisation, for example, Nga Tamatoa, meaning Young Warriors. Nga Tamatoa became the new voice of Maori and a strong-minded group on Maori affairs, pushing for the revitalisation of Maori culture. Maori urbanisation was a significant cause of the protest by Maori in the 1970s as it provided new and educated Maori leaders in society and more opportunities, however, is a key factor in the loss of traditional tribal influence on Maori and the subsequent change of lifestyle.
Image 15 (Right): Members of Maori activist group, Nga Tamatoa, on the steps of Parliament, representing urban Maori.
Government Legislation and Policy
The legislation of the 1960s implemented by the government caused conflict between Maori and the government due to the limitations placed on Maori. With National winning the 1949 election there was no Maori representation in parliament. Labour’s policies of equality in areas such as education, health and access to social security and work opportunities were continued by the National government. The 1960 Hunn Report was articulated by the National government and supplied a comprehensive review of Maori policy. The Report found that Maori weren’t succeeding in the various facets reviewed and contributed to the idea of integration of the races. Hunn stated that in Maori urbanisation laid the need for Maori to assimilate and adapt a Pakeha lifestyle. The Report saw no reason for Maori to sustain unnecessary control over their lives. Furthermore, Hunn expressed his idea of by improving education for Maori, Maori would be able to emerge from poverty and immerse themselves more fully into the Pakeha way of life. The Hunn Report was received well by most Pakeha and some Maori leaders, however, was opposed by others, in particular the Maori component of the Anglican Church, they stated,
“Our future is being decided for us without our hopes and intentions being considered. However well-intentioned such a policy may be, it is in the long run bound
to cause more problems than it solves . . . Let it be understood that, while we are willing to join with the Pakeha in becoming New Zealanders, we have no desire whatever to become Pakeha.”
- (Taken from Ball, Graeme, (2004). Making Kiwis: Greatest Hits of 20th Century New Zealand History. Auckland: New House Publishers).
The Maori section of the Anglican Church interpreted the Report as expressing ideas of assimiliation and calling for the closure of Maori schools so all students would be integrated together in Pakeha schools. The downfall of the Report was that the consultation with Maori was minimal in its formulation, therefore, was unable to fulfil Maori desires. The New Zealand Maori Council was formed in 1962 by the National government as they felt an independent source was needed with regards to Maori issues. The Council worked to advise the government on issues that would improve social and economic circumstances for Maori. Effectively, the Maori Council stood as the voice of all Maori rather than having various views from individual tribes in parliament. The continuing debacle over land ownership was addressed by the National government by introducing the 1967 Maori Affairs Amendment Act. This act was an amendment of the 1962 Maori Affairs Act and brought about the compulsory sale of all idle Maori land that had less than four owners or was valued at less than £50. The act also allowed for ‘improvement inspectors’ to decide the future purpose of Maori land. Maori concerns with this act surfaced as they faired further alienation of Maori land and called the act the governments ‘last land grab.’ Government legislation and policy of the time was a significant cause of the protests in the 1970s as it created Maori opposition and therefore Maori felt the urge to protest about the alienation of Maori land and inequalities Maori suffered.
The legislation of the 1960s implemented by the government caused conflict between Maori and the government due to the limitations placed on Maori. With National winning the 1949 election there was no Maori representation in parliament. Labour’s policies of equality in areas such as education, health and access to social security and work opportunities were continued by the National government. The 1960 Hunn Report was articulated by the National government and supplied a comprehensive review of Maori policy. The Report found that Maori weren’t succeeding in the various facets reviewed and contributed to the idea of integration of the races. Hunn stated that in Maori urbanisation laid the need for Maori to assimilate and adapt a Pakeha lifestyle. The Report saw no reason for Maori to sustain unnecessary control over their lives. Furthermore, Hunn expressed his idea of by improving education for Maori, Maori would be able to emerge from poverty and immerse themselves more fully into the Pakeha way of life. The Hunn Report was received well by most Pakeha and some Maori leaders, however, was opposed by others, in particular the Maori component of the Anglican Church, they stated,
“Our future is being decided for us without our hopes and intentions being considered. However well-intentioned such a policy may be, it is in the long run bound
to cause more problems than it solves . . . Let it be understood that, while we are willing to join with the Pakeha in becoming New Zealanders, we have no desire whatever to become Pakeha.”
- (Taken from Ball, Graeme, (2004). Making Kiwis: Greatest Hits of 20th Century New Zealand History. Auckland: New House Publishers).
The Maori section of the Anglican Church interpreted the Report as expressing ideas of assimiliation and calling for the closure of Maori schools so all students would be integrated together in Pakeha schools. The downfall of the Report was that the consultation with Maori was minimal in its formulation, therefore, was unable to fulfil Maori desires. The New Zealand Maori Council was formed in 1962 by the National government as they felt an independent source was needed with regards to Maori issues. The Council worked to advise the government on issues that would improve social and economic circumstances for Maori. Effectively, the Maori Council stood as the voice of all Maori rather than having various views from individual tribes in parliament. The continuing debacle over land ownership was addressed by the National government by introducing the 1967 Maori Affairs Amendment Act. This act was an amendment of the 1962 Maori Affairs Act and brought about the compulsory sale of all idle Maori land that had less than four owners or was valued at less than £50. The act also allowed for ‘improvement inspectors’ to decide the future purpose of Maori land. Maori concerns with this act surfaced as they faired further alienation of Maori land and called the act the governments ‘last land grab.’ Government legislation and policy of the time was a significant cause of the protests in the 1970s as it created Maori opposition and therefore Maori felt the urge to protest about the alienation of Maori land and inequalities Maori suffered.